9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules

The modules described in this chapter provide numeric and math-related functions and data types. The numbers module defines an abstract hierarchy of numeric types. The math and cmath modules contain various mathematical functions for floating-point and complex numbers. For users more interested in decimal accuracy than in speed, the decimal module supports exact representations of decimal numbers.

The following modules are documented in this chapter:

• 9.1. numbers Numeric abstract base classes
  • 9.1.1. The numeric tower
  • 9.1.2. Notes for type implementors
    • 9.1.2.1. Adding More Numeric ABCs
    • 9.1.2.2. Implementing the arithmetic operations
• 9.2. math Mathematical functions
  • 9.2.1. Number-theoretic and representation functions
  • 9.2.2. Power and logarithmic functions
  • 9.2.3. Trigonometric functions
  • 9.2.4. Angular conversion
  • 9.2.5. Hyperbolic functions
  • 9.2.6. Special functions
  • 9.2.7. Constants
• 9.3. cmath Mathematical functions for complex numbers
  • 9.3.1. Conversions to and from polar coordinates
  • 9.3.2. Power and logarithmic functions
  • 9.3.3. Trigonometric functions
  • 9.3.4. Hyperbolic functions
  • 9.3.5. Classification functions
  • 9.3.6. Constants
• 9.4. decimal Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic
  • 9.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial
  • 9.4.2. Decimal objects
    • 9.4.2.1. Logical operands
  • 9.4.3. Context objects
  • 9.4.4. Signals
  • 9.4.5. Floating Point Notes
    • 9.4.5.1. Mitigating round-off error with increased precision
    • 9.4.5.2. Special values
  • 9.4.6. Working with threads
  • 9.4.7. Recipes
  • 9.4.8. Decimal FAQ
• 9.5. fractions Rational numbers
• 9.6. random Generate pseudo-random numbers
• 9.7. itertools Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
  • 9.7.1. Itertool functions
  • 9.7.2. Recipes
• 9.8. functools Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects
  • 9.8.1. partial Objects
• 9.9. operator Standard operators as functions
  • 9.9.1. Mapping Operators to Functions